Human Parasites

 Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by blood flukes (Trematodes) of the genus Schistosoma. Infection with Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, and S. japonicum occurs when larval forms of the parasite penetrate the skin.  In the body, the larvae develop into adult Schistosomes. Adult worms live in the blood vessels where the females release eggs. Some of the eggs are passed out of the body in the faeces or urine to continue the parasite’s lifecycle. Others become trapped in body tissues, causing immune reactions and progressive damage to organs. 

  Malaria is caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium. Human malaria is caused by four different species of Plasmodium: P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale and P. vivax.  The malaria parasite is transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes, which bite mainly between dusk and dawn. 

 Pediculosis is infestation with the human head-and-body louse, Pediculus humanus. There are two subspecies, the head louse (P. h. capitis) and the body louse (P. h. humanus). They are ectoparasites whose only known hosts are humans. Recent molecular data suggest that the two subspecies are ecotypes of the same species and that evolution between the two populations take place continually. 

 Opisthorchis species are liver fluke parasites that humans can get by eating raw or undercooked fish, crabs, or crayfish from areas in Asia and Europe where the parasite is found, including Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Germany, Italy, Belarus, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine. Liver flukes infect the liver, gallbladder, and bile duct in humans. While most infected persons do not show any symptoms, infections that last a long time can result in severe symptoms and serious illness. Untreated, infections may persist for up to 25–30 years, the lifespan of the parasite. Typical symptoms include indigestion, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or constipation. In severe cases, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea can occur. 

 Clonorchis is a liver fluke parasite that humans can get by eating raw or undercooked fish, crabs, or crayfish from areas where the parasite is found. Found across parts of Asia, Clonorchis is also known as the Chinese or oriental liver fluke. Liver flukes infect the liver, gallbladder, and bile duct in humans. While most infected persons do not show any symptoms, infections that last a long time can result in severe symptoms and serious illness. Untreated, infections may persist for up to 25–30 years, the lifespan of the parasite. 

 Strongyloidiasis is a parasitic disease caused by nematodes, or roundworms, in the genus Strongyloides. The parasites enter the body through exposed skin, such as bare feet. Strongyloides is most common in tropical or subtropical climates.

Most people who are infected with Strongyloides do not know they are infected and have no symptoms. Others, particularly those who are on some immunosuppressive therapies, may develop a severe form and, if untreated, become critically ill and possibly die.

The trematodes Fasciola hepatica (also known as the common liver fluke or the sheep liver fluke) and Fasciola gigantica are large liver flukes (F. hepatica: up to 30 mm by 15 mm; F. gigantica: up to 75 mm by 15 mm), which are primarily found in domestic and wild ruminants (their main definitive hosts) but also are causal agents of fascioliasis in humans.

Although F. hepatica and F. gigantica are distinct species, “intermediate forms” that are thought to represent hybrids of the two species have been found in parts of Asia and Africa where both species are endemic. These forms usually have intermediate morphologic characteristics (e.g. overall size, proportions), possess genetic elements from both species, exhibit unusual ploidy levels (often triploid), and do not produce sperm. Further research into the nature and origin of these forms is ongoing.

 Taeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm species Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), Taenia solium(pork tapeworm), and Taenia asiatica (Asian tapeworm). Humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked beef (T. saginata) or pork (T. solium and T. asiatica). People with taeniasis may not know they have a tapeworm infection because symptoms are usually mild or nonexistent.

Taenia solium tapeworm infections can lead to cysticercosis, which is a disease that can cause seizures, so it is important seek treatment.

 Trichuris trichiura, also known as the human whipworm, is a roundworm that causes trichuriasis in humans. It is referred to as the whipworm because it looks like a whip with wide handles at the posterior end. The whipworm has a narrow anterior esophagus and a thick posterior anus. The worms are usually pink and attach to the host via the slender anterior end. The size of these worms varies from 3 to 5 cm. The female usually larger than the male.  The female worm can lay anywhere from 2000 to 10,000 eggs per day. The eggs are deposited in soil from human feces. After 14 to 21 days, the eggs mature and enter an infective stage. If humans ingest the embryonated eggs, the eggs start to hatch in the human small intestine and utilize the intestinal microflora and nutrients to multiply and grow. The majority of larvae move to the cecum, penetrate the mucosa and mature to adulthood. Infections involving a high-worm burden will typically involve distal parts of the large intestine.

  Trichinella is the genus of parasitic roundworms of the phylum Nematoda that cause trichinosis.   The L1 larvae live in a modified skeletal muscle cell. 

The adult worms occupy a membrane-bound portion of columnar epithelium, living as intramulticellular parasites. It has been shown to have a worldwide distribution and can infect swine, wild animals (foxes, wolves, bears, skunk, raccoons, rats, and other small mammals), and humans. Trichinella is known as the smallest human nematode parasite, yet it is also the largest of all intracellular parasites. 

 Dicrocoelium dendriticum along with Dicrocoelium hospes are part of a group of flukes that can infect the bile ducts of humans. Because the bodies of these parasites are long and narrow, infections are generally confined to the more distal parts of the bile ducts. As a result, most Dicrocoelium dendriticum infections of the biliary tree produce only mild symptoms. These symptoms can include biliary colic and general digestive disturbances, including bloating and diarrhea. However, in heavier infections, bile ducts and the biliary epithelium may become enlarged in addition to the generation of fibrous tissue surrounding the ducts, and as a result, causing an enlarged liver (hepatomegaly) or inflammation of the liver (cirrhosis). In one unique case, an infection with Dicrocoelium dendriticum was associated with a skin rash urticaria 

 Human proliferative sparganosis is a rare parasitic disease in which the larval cestodes of unknown species proliferate in the various organs in the whole body.  The adult Spirometra spp and Sparganum proliferum tapeworms infect dogs, cats, and other carnivores. Eggs are passed into freshwater where they are ingested by copepods (eg, Cyclops). Fish, reptiles, and amphibians (including frogs) ingest them and serve as intermediate hosts. 

Ascaris lumbricoides is a large roundworm of humans, growing to a length of up to 35 cm (14 in). It is one of several species of Ascaris. An ascarid nematode of the phylum Nematoda, it is the most common parasitic worm in humans. This organism is responsible for the disease ascariasis, a type of helminthiasis and one of the group of neglected tropical diseases. Acariasis is prevalent worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical countries.

It has been proposed that Ascaris lumbricoides and Ascaris suum (pig roundworm) are the same species.

 Ancylostoma duodenale is a species of the roundworm genus Ancylostoma. It is a parasitic nematode worm and commonly known as the Old World hookworm. It lives in the small intestine of hosts such as humans, cats and dogs, where it is able to mate and mature. Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus are the two human hookworm species that are normally discussed together as the cause of hookworm infection. They are dioecious.[1]Ancylostoma duodenale is abundant throughout the world.

 Necator americanus is a species of hookworm commonly known as the New World hookworm. Like other hookworms, it is a member of the phylum Nematoda. It is an obligatory parasitic nematode that lives in the small intestine of human hosts. Since N. americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale (also known as Old World hookworm) are the two species of hookworms that most commonly infest humans, they are usually dealt with under the collective heading of "hookworm infection". They differ most obviously in geographical distribution, structure of mouthparts, and relative size. The typical lifespan of these parasites is 3-5 years. They can produce between 5,000 and 10,000 eggs per day. 

 Hymenolepis is the most common  tapeworm to infect humans and is responsible  hymenolepiasis which is caused by the introduction of either tapeworm species Hymenolepis nana  or Hymenolepis diminuta  into the human body.  A member of the cestode class, tapeworms do not have digestive tracts to absorb nutrients, instead their surface body layer is metabolically active with nutrients and waste passing in and out continuously. In contrast, the nematodes class, such as hookworms, have complete digestive tracts and separate orifices for food ingestion and waste excretion. Although the cestode life cycle requires the cysticercoid, or larval, phase to be developed in an intermediate host, H. nana does not follow this observation and can use an intermediate host or auto infect the human host. 

 Cryptosporidium parvum is one of several species that cause the parasitic disease known as cryptosporidiosis.  Infection is commonly intestinal but can include the lungs, liver, and gall bladder, where it causes respiratory cryptosporidosis, hepatitis, and cholecystitis, respectively.  Infection is caused by ingestion of sporulated oocysts.  C. parvum is considered to be the most important waterborne pathogen in developed countries. The protozoa also caused the largest waterborne-disease outbreak ever documented in the United States.  The C. parvum oocysts are incredibly durable, which can cause extended problems when attempting to control the spread of the parasite. The oocyst stage can tolerate a vast number of environmental pressures. The oocyst can tolerate temperatures as low as −22 °C and for long periods of time, which means contamination is possible even after going through deep freezing. The oocysts can also tolerate shifts in pH that are found in some water treatment processes, and careful attention to detail must be done to prevent the possibility of infection. The oocysts in fecal material are immediately infective. 

 Giardiasis is one of the most common parasitic human diseases globally and is classified by The WHO as a neglected disease. It is caused by the single-celled parasite Giardia.  Many of those who are infected have no symptoms. When symptoms occur they may include diarreah,  abdominal pain and weight loss. Vomiting, blood in the stool and fever are less common. Giardia usually spreads by the ingestion of cysts.  It may also spread between people and from other animals. Cysts may survive in the environment for up to 3 months. 

 Balantidium coli is a  parasitic species of ciliate alveolates that causes the zoonotic disease balantidiasis.  Contaminated water is considered to be the most common mechanism of transmission.  Balantidium coli lives in the cecum and colon of humans, pigs, rats and other mammals. It is not readily transmissible from one species of host to another because it requires a period of time to adjust to the symbiotic flora of the new host. Once it has adapted to a host species, the protozoan can become a serious pathogen, especially in humans.  Infection occurs when the cysts are ingested. 

  Cystoisospora belli, previously known as Isospora belli, is a parasite that causes an intestinal disease known as cystoisosporiasis .  This protozoan parasite  primarily exists in the epithelial cells of the small intestine, and develops in the cell cytoplasm.  The distribution of this coccidian parasite is cosmopolitan  and it is usually associated with HIV infection and institutional living.  Cystoisospora belli does not require an intermediate host,  can be zoonotic  and also transmitted from person to person. 

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 Cats can be infected with  five species of the Bartonella bacteria.  In addition to cats, numerous domestic and wild animals, including bovine, canine, human, and rodent species can serve as  hosts for various Bartonella species. In addition, an increasing number of arthropod vectors, including biting flies, fleas, keds, lice, sandflys and ticks have been implicated in the transmission of various Bartonella species to animals or human beings. 

 Opisthorchiasis is generally caused by Opisthorchis felineus or O. viverrini.  These are liver flukes of cats, dogs, and other fish-eating mammals, which serve as reservoir hosts.  

 Dogs and cats can become infected with several hookworm species, including Ancylostoma brazilense, A. caninum, A. ceylanicum, and Uncinaria stenocephala.  People become infected when the zoonotic hookworm larvae penetrate unprotected skin, especially when walking barefoot or sitting on contaminated soil or sand. This can result in a disease called cutaneous larva migrans (CLM), when the larvae migrate through the skin and cause inflammation. 

 Toxoplasmosis is a disease that results from infection with the Toxoplasma gondii parasite, one of the world's most common parasites. Infection usually occurs by eating undercooked contaminated meat, exposure to infected cat feces, or mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy. 

 Taenia taeniaeformis is a parasitic tapeworm with cats and sometimes dogs as the primary definitive hosts. Humans can also become infected with other species of Taenia by ingesting raw or under-cooked meat such as beef or pork.

 Dipylidium caninum is a tapeworm that can be transmitted by fleas and lice.  Cats and dogs are the normal hosts for Dipylidium caninum.,  and humans can also be infected.

 Trichostrongylus species are nematodes (round worms), which are ubiquitous among herbivores worldwide, including cattle, sheep, donkeys, goats, deer, and rabbits. At least 10 Trichostrongylus species have been associated with human infections that can occur via ingestion of or penetration of skin by infective larvae.  Cats and dogs can also host Trichostrongylus species within their bodies.

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 Cheyletiella mites are non-burrowing mites that have a 36-day life cycle, with two nymphal stages and one larval stage. The rabbit, cat, and dog serve as reservoirs for the mite. All stages of the life-cycle occur on the animal   This mite can be transmitted to humans through direct contact with infested animals. The mite can also be transmitted by flies, fleas, and lice.  The Cheyletiella mite produces a non-specific cutaneous scaling with or without pruritus. The lesions on humans vary from vesicles to papules, most often on the trunk and in particular at locations where the infested animal is held against the person’s body 

  Halicephalobus gingivalis  is a free-living nematode species that  is a facultative parasite of horses and humans.  Based on studies performed on infected horses in Florida, the parasite is associated with swampland environments.  The site of entry for the parasite is thought to be through breaks in skin or through mucous membranes.  H. gingivalis is uncommon in humans so far. However, its rare effects are lethal as there is inflammation of the central nervous system, leading to brain dysfunction and meningoencephalomyelitis. This disease causes increased concentration of eosinophils in the cerebrospinal fluid. In horses (where the parasite is most studied), infection of the brain is common, followed by the kidneys, oral and nasal cavities, lymph nodes, lungs, spinal cord, and adrenal gland, and also reports of infection of heart, liver, stomach and bone. A rare triple fatality from Halicephalobus was reported in the UK, where infected kidneys were transplanted to two recipients. 

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic nematode (roundworm) that causes angiostrongyliasis, a common cause of eosinophilic meningitis. The nematode commonly resides in the pulmonary arteries of rats, giving it the common name rat lungworm. Snails are the primary intermediate hosts, where larvae develop until they are infectious.

Humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm, and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors, or from contaminated water and vegetables. The larvae are then transported via the blood to the central nervous system, where they are the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis, a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage.[5] Angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance, as globalization contributes to the geographic spread of the disease.

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